diff --git a/config/en/mkdocs.yaml b/config/en/mkdocs.yaml index fc3402a..0729464 100755 --- a/config/en/mkdocs.yaml +++ b/config/en/mkdocs.yaml @@ -88,6 +88,8 @@ nav: - 'Determinants': mathematics/linear-algebra/determinants.md - 'Vector spaces': mathematics/linear-algebra/vector-spaces.md - 'Linear transformations': mathematics/linear-algebra/linear-transformations.md + - 'Orthogonality': mathematics/linear-algebra/orthogonality.md + - 'Diagonalization': mathematics/linear-algebra/diagonalization.md - 'Calculus': - 'Limits': mathematics/calculus/limits.md - 'Continuity': mathematics/calculus/continuity.md @@ -118,6 +120,11 @@ nav: - 'Physics': - physics/index.md # - 'Mechanics': +# - 'Newtonian mechanics': +# - 'Lagrangian mechanics': +# - 'Hamiltonian mechanics': +# - 'Relativistic mechanics': +# - 'Quantum mechanics': - 'Electromagnetism': # - 'Electrostatics': # - 'Magnetostatics': @@ -130,6 +137,7 @@ nav: - 'Interference': physics/electromagnetism/optics/interference.md - 'Diffraction': physics/electromagnetism/optics/diffraction.md - 'Polarisation': physics/electromagnetism/optics/polarisation.md +# - 'Statistical physics': - 'Mathematical physics': - 'Signal analysis': - 'Signals': physics/mathematical-physics/signal-analysis/signals.md diff --git a/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/diagonalization.md b/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/diagonalization.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b90827f --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/diagonalization.md @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +# Diagonalization \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/linear-transformations.md b/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/linear-transformations.md index 546cbc6..3fb3181 100644 --- a/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/linear-transformations.md +++ b/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/linear-transformations.md @@ -10,7 +10,9 @@ > > for all $\mathbf{v}_{1,2} \in V$ and $\lambda, \mu \in \mathbb{K}$. -In the case that the vector spaces $V$ and $W$ are the same; $V=W$, a linear transformation $L: V \to V$ will be reffered to as a **linear operator** on $V$. +A linear transformation may also be called a **vector space homomorphism**. If the linear transformation is a bijection then it may be called a **linear isomorphism**. + +In the case that the vector spaces $V$ and $W$ are the same; $V=W$, a linear transformation $L: V \to V$ will be referred to as a **linear operator** on $V$ or **linear endomorphism** . ## The image and kernel @@ -59,3 +61,65 @@ With these definitions the following theorem may be posed. since $\lambda \mathbf{v}_1 + \mu \mathbf{v}_2 \in S$ it follows that $\lambda \mathbf{w}_1 + \mu \mathbf{w}_2 \in L(S)$ and hence $L(S)$ is a subspace of $W$. +## Matrix representations + +> *Theorem*: let $L: \mathbb{R}^n \to \mathbb{R}^m$ be a linear transformation, then there is an $m \times n$ matrix $A$ such that +> +> $$ +> L(\mathbf{x}) = A \mathbf{x}, +> $$ +> +> for all $x \in \mathbb{R}^n$. With the $i$th column vector of $A$ given by +> +> $$ +> \mathbf{a}_i = L(\mathbf{e}_i), +> $$ +> +> for a basis $\{\mathbf{e}_1, \dots, \mathbf{e}_n\} \subset \mathbb{R}^n$ and $i \in \{1, \dots, n\}$. + +??? note "*Proof*:" + + For $i \in \{1, \dots, n\}$, define + + $$ + \mathbf{a}_i = L(\mathbf{e}_i), + $$ + + and let + + $$ + A = (\mathbf{a}_1, \dots, \mathbf{a}_n). + $$ + + If $\mathbf{x} = x_1 \mathbf{e}_1 + \dots + x_n \mathbf{e}_n$ is an arbitrary element of $\mathbb{R}^n$, then + + $$ + \begin{align*} + L(\mathbf{x}) &= x_1 L(\mathbf{e}_1) + \dots + x_n L(\mathbf{e}_n), \\ + &= x_1 \mathbf{a}_1 + \dots + x_n \mathbf{a}_n, \\ + &= A \mathbf{x}. + \end{align*} + $$ + +It has therefore been established that each linear transformation from $\mathbb{R}^n$ to $\mathbb{R}^m$ can be represented in terms of an $m \times n$ matrix. + +> *Theorem*: let $E = \{\mathbf{e}_1, \dots, \mathbf{e}_n\}$ and $F = \{\mathbf{f}_1, \dots, \mathbf{f}_n\}$ be two ordered bases for a vector space $V$, and let $L: V \to V$ be a linear operator on $V$, $\dim V = n \in \mathbb{N}$. Let $S$ be the $n \times n$ transition matrix representing the change from $F$ to $E$, +> $$ +> \mathbf{e}_i = S \mathbf{f}_i, +> $$ +> +> for $i \in \mathbb{N}; i\leq n$. +> +> If $A$ is the matrix representing $L$ with respect to $E$, and $B$ is the matrix representing $L$ with respect to $F$, then +> +> $$ +> B = S^{-1} A S. +> $$ + +??? note "*Proof*:" + + Will be added later. + +> *Definition*: let $A$ and $B$ be $n \times n$ matrices. $B$ is said to be **similar** to $A$ if there exists a nonsingular matrix $S$ such that $B = S^{-1} A S$. + +It follows from the above theorem that if $A$ and $B$ are $n \times n$ matrices representing the same operator $L$, then $A$ and $B$ are similar. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/orthogonality.md b/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/orthogonality.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ea24e25 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/orthogonality.md @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +# Orthogonality \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/vector-spaces.md b/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/vector-spaces.md index a59d265..d6bbd92 100644 --- a/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/vector-spaces.md +++ b/docs/en/mathematics/linear-algebra/vector-spaces.md @@ -445,7 +445,7 @@ With the definition of a row space the following theorem may be posed. Let $A$ and $B$ be two matrices, if $B$ is row equivalent to $A$ then $B$ can be formed from $A$ by a finite sequence of row operations. Thus the row vectors of $B$ must be linear combinations of the row vectors of $A$. Consequently, the row space of $B$ must be a subspace of the row space of $A$. Since $A$ is row equivalent to $B$, by the same reasoning, the row space of $A$ is a subspace of the row space of $B$. -With the definition of a column space a theorem posed in [systems of linear equations](systems-of-linear-equations.md) may be restatated as. +With the definition of a column space a theorem posed in [systems of linear equations](systems-of-linear-equations.md) may be restated as. > *Theorem*: a linear system $A \mathbf{x} = \mathbf{b}$ is consistent if and only if $\mathbf{b}$ is in the column space of $A$. @@ -477,7 +477,13 @@ From these propositions the following corollary emerges. Let $A$ be an $m \times n$ matrix. If the column vectors of $A$ span $\mathbb{R}^m$, then $n$ must be greater or equal to $m$, since no set of fewer than $m$ vectors could span $\mathbb{R}^m$. If the columns of $A$ are linearly independent, then $n$ must be less than or equal to $m$, since every set of more than $m$ vectors in $\mathbb{R}^m$ is linearly dependent. Thus, if the column vectors of $A$ form a basis for $\mathbb{R}^m$, then $n = m$. -
+> *Theorem*: if $A$ is an $m \times n$ matrix, the dimension of the row space of $A$ equals the dimension of the column space of $A$. + +??? note "*Proof*:" + + Will be added later. + +## Rank and nullity > *Definition*: the **rank** of a matrix $A$, denoted as $\text{rank}(A)$, is the dimension of the row space of $A$. @@ -495,12 +501,4 @@ The nullity of $A$ is the number of columns without a pivot in the reduced echel ??? note "*Proof*:" - Let $U$ be the reduced echelon form of $A$. The system $A \mathbf{x} = \mathbf{0}$ is equivalent to the system $U \mathbf{x} = \mathbf{0}$. If $A$ has rank $r$, then $U$ will have $r$ nonzero rows and consequently the system $U \mathbf{x} = \mathbf{0}$ will involve $r$ pivots and $n - r$ free variables. The dimension of the null space will equal the number of free variables. - -The section of vector spaces may be finished off, with this reasonably important theorem. - -> *Theorem*: if $A$ is an $m \times n$ matrix, the dimension of the row space of $A$ equals the dimension of the column space of $A$. - -??? note "*Proof*:" - - Will be added later. \ No newline at end of file + Let $U$ be the reduced echelon form of $A$. The system $A \mathbf{x} = \mathbf{0}$ is equivalent to the system $U \mathbf{x} = \mathbf{0}$. If $A$ has rank $r$, then $U$ will have $r$ nonzero rows and consequently the system $U \mathbf{x} = \mathbf{0}$ will involve $r$ pivots and $n - r$ free variables. The dimension of the null space will equal the number of free variables. \ No newline at end of file